CHINESE IDIOMS AND SAYINGS 汉语成语

A BOOK ABOUT CHINESE IDIOMS AND SAYINGS

2011-11-19T06:37:00.001-08:00

I invite you to read my book about Chinese idioms and sayings

FIVE FLOWERS EIGHT DOORS

五花八门
Understanding China and its Idioms

Then and Now

ILLUSTRATED

Hila Berliner

白慧理

this book or portions thereof in any form

To my dear parents Aharon and Leah Berliner

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to a number of people for their help. First, I would like to thank my dear parents Leah and Aharon Berliner for their support and encouragement.

Many thanks to Naomi Paz for her enlightening comments, for her English editing, and for her generosity.

I would like to thank my friends Nevet Dolev, Amram Dolev, Eta Levin and Alice Geyer for their encouragement; and Chaim Gibalka for his advice concerning the software used for the illustrations.

And, finally, I thank my Chinese friends, with whom I have connection through the Internet, for patiently answering my many questions about their life and culture.

INTRODUCTION

China is mentioned in the Bible, Isaiah, 49, 12: "Behold, these shall come from far: and, lo, these from the north and from the west; and these from the land of Sinim". In Hebrew, China is "Sin" and its inhabitants are called "Sinim". Just as the people in the Holy Land considered China to be a remote country, so too did the Europeans, who called Eastern Asia "The Far East" and indeed still do so today. Even the European settlers in Australia have continued to use this term though Eastern Asia is actually north of Australia, and near to it. Moreover, just as the early Europeans believed that they lived in the center of the world, so too did the Chinese, who called their country, as early as two thousand years ago, the "Central Kingdom" 中国 (zhōng guó), which is what they still call it nowadays.

Apart from its geographical significance, the name "Central Kingdom" also had a moral meaning. China has a literature, philosophy and art all of its own. Indeed, China considered its culture superior to those of others, disseminating elements of its culture to the countries surrounding it, such as Japan and Korea.

In our own age, as the world becomes a global village through the use of the Internet and television satellite broadcasts, it is increasingly advantageous for Westerners to learn about Chinese culture, which is becoming more and more accessible. Country borders no longer obstruct the expansion of cultures. The saying of the Chinese philosopher Lao Zi 老子 (lǎozǐ) (604?-531 BCE), that a sage knows the whole world without ever leaving his home, is truer today than ever before.

Not a day passes without the media reporting news from China. There are those who envisage China in the not so distant future as the most powerful country in the world. This most densely populated country in the world has valuable cultural assets that have been preserved and developed throughout thousands of years. One of these assets is the Chinese language, which has an abundance of proverbs and sayings, many of which are still in common use.

My hope is that this book will encourage Westerners to enrich their own linguistic and expressive abilities by adopting and adapting from Chinese idioms and sayings, and thus also contribute to the picturesque in the language. I believe, moreover, that the more we Westerners learn about the Chinese culture, the smaller the cultural gap between China and the West will get.

An earlier attempt to bridge the gap between China and the West was made by the European missionaries to China in the 17th and 18th centuries, who not only studied Chinese sayings in order to convey Christian messages, but sometimes also published their research into these sayings. Such sayings can be classified into two main kinds: those that are specific products of the Chinese culture; and those endowed with a universal character, having parallels in Western cultures.

This book is directed at readers who are interested in the Chinese culture. For those who are studying the Chinese language, the book will contribute to broadening their knowledge. It is especially for such readers that the idiomatic phrases are presented in Chinese, with their pronunciation in Latin letters below them.

I have attempted to translate the sayings and idioms as closely as possible to their original meaning without damaging their intelligibility. Presenting the phrases in Chinese enables the appropriately equipped reader to follow the construction of the Chinese sentences, the order of their characters, their rhymes, etc.

Many of the proverbs are picturesque, borrowing images from daily life and from humankind's natural environment. This picturesqueness is deeply rooted in the Chinese script, one of the oldest in the world, with a history dating back to five thousand years ago. The Chinese script has served in the past, and continues to serve nowadays as well, as a powerful means of unification in China, where there are a vast number of local dialects.

Since the foundation of the Republic of China, Chinese writing has undergone several changes. During the years 1956-1959 the battle against illiteracy introduced new, simpler forms to the more prevalent Chinese characters, in order to prevent as well as to alleviate writing difficulties. As a part of this reform, the government both reduced the total number of characters, and simplified them by reducing the number of their strokes. In 1964, the number of such simplified characters rose from 515 to 2238, out of approximately 7,000 in general use. The final list of simplified characters was published in 1986. A standard pronunciation 普通话 (pǔ tōng huà) was introduced in Chinese schools as early as 1956.

There are six kinds of characters 六书(liù shū), classified according to the relationship between their form and meaning:

1. 象形 (xiàng xíng) Pictograms - pictographic characters that imitate the form of a represented object. For example, the character 日 (rì) (literally: sun) was originally a circle with a dot in the middle. 木 (mù) signifies "tree", 门 (mén) signifies "door", 伞(sǎn) signifies "parasol" and 雨 (yǔ) signifies "rain".

Only a few hundred characters in the Chinese language constitute formal representations of objects from nature. Most of the characters are comprised of two components: a phonetic, which gives some indication of the pronunciation of the character; and a semantic radical, which sometimes offers a clue to the character's meaning.

2. 指事 (zhǐ shì) (literally: indication) Ideograms or indicatives. The principle is similar to that of the previous principle, but here the characters describe abstract ideas represented by strokes. For example: 一 (yī) signifies "one, 二 (èr) signifies "two", and 三 (sān) signifies "three". One stroke added to a pictogram frequently indicates an abstract idea. For example: 末 (mò) (木 (mù) + upper stroke) signifies "treetop" and 本 (běn) (木 (mù) + lower stroke) signifies "root".

3. 形声 (xíng shēng) (literally: form and sound) This is a pronunciation definer – these characters comprise an element that refers to significance (the root or the radical), and a phonetic element. For example: 洋 (yáng) (literally: ocean), is composed of a root element, in this case "water" (the left part of the character), and pronunciation element - 羊 (yáng) (literally: a sheep).

4. 会意 (huì yì) (literally: joined meaning). These constitute composite ideograms - characters comprised of simple characters, together forming a new character with a new significance expressed jointly through their interaction. For example: 男 (nán) (literally: man) is comprised of 田 (tián) (literally: a field) and of 力 (lì) (literally: power). Another example: 鸣 (míng) (literally: chirping) is comprised of 口 (kǒu) (literally: a mouth) and 鸟 (niǎo) (literally: a bird).

5. 转注 (zhuǎn zhù) Mutually explanatory characters. These characters broaden the significance by means of adding a new formal element to form a new character, pronounced in a different way to that of the original. Such characters are usually synonyms or near-synonyms. For example: 窍 (qiào) (literally: opening) and 空 (kōng) (literally: air). Sometimes these synonyms have somewhat different meanings, like in 老 (lǎo) (literally: old) and 考 (kǎo) (literally: test). Of the six kinds of characters, this is the most difficult to interpret.

6. 假借 (jiǎ jiè) (literally: borrowing) This is a character that acquires a new meaning by borrowing a character that represents a homophone or near-homophone, in order to create a new meaning. For example, the character 來 (in traditional Chinese writing) (lái) depicted the wheat plant and meant "wheat" in ancient times. The words "wheat" and "to come" in Chinese had had the same pronunciation; therefore, the character 來 (lái) was borrowed in order to represent the verb "to come". The pronunciation of the original word that meant "wheat", has now changed, and currently it is pronounced mài, now written 麥 (mài).

In Chinese we need to note the difference between a word and a character. A word is a speech unit comprising one or more characters. Usually, each character has several meanings. In form, all Chinese characters take up the same amount of space, due to their block-like square nature. This square form was introduced in the 11th century CE.

Unlike many languages in the western world, which are based on reason and logic, the Chinese language is based on images and intuition. In their earliest forms, the characters were abstract images of objects and ideas. Eight hundred characters provide many more possibilities of expression than eight hundred words in English, since a combination of different characters in Chinese can form a word with a meaning different from the original meaning of the individual characters that form it.

In the Mandarin The word "Mandarin" has been in use since 1589 CE. Its origin is in the Sanskrit word "mantrin", meaning "counselor". It indicates an official language, used by the government officials (the Mandarins) in traditional China. dialect (the standard one) there are four tones, not related to the old tones. Change in tone brings change in meaning. Every character has its own pronunciation. However, many different characters have exactly the same pronunciation.

Every dialect has its own tones. In the Cantonese dialect, for instance, there are nine tones, whereas in Mandarin, the official dialect, there are four tones: 平 (píng) (horizontal), 上 (shàng) (ascending), 去 (qù) (falling), 入 (rù) (entering). For example, the same word that is pronounced "mai", means both, "To sell" 卖 (mài) and "to buy" 买 (mǎi). The difference between these two characters lies in the tone and form of the character.

The phonetic pronunciation of the Chinese characters is presented in the book in the Mandarin dialect, written in Latin transcription according to the Pin Yin 拼音 (pīn yīn) system, which is in general use in modern-day China. This transcription, developed in Soviet Russia in the 1930s and introduced by the Chinese in the 1950s, replaced the old Wade-Giles system and became a standard system of pronunciation of names and places in 1976. For example: Mao Ze Dong 毛泽东 (máo zé dōng) was pronounced Mao Tse Tung in the Wade Giles system, and the name of the capital city Beijing 北京 (běi jīng) was pronounced Peking in the Wade Giles system.

The Chinese language is sparing with words. Words do not change according to singular or plural, gender or time (tenses). There is no need to add a character to specify tense (past, present or future) when mentioning the timing of the action (such as yesterday, today, tomorrow etc.). There is also no conjugation of verbs or nouns and no distinction between masculine and feminine. The same word is used to indicate a verb in the past, present and future tenses. Unlike in the English language, words are not classified as parts of speech such as noun, verb, adjective or adverb. The same word can function as any one of these parts of speech. For example, the word 慢 (màn), which signifies "slow", can function as a verb, adjective, or adverb. This eases the study of the language, but makes it difficult to translate.

As opposed to English, in Chinese it is impossible to clarify meaning by spelling a word out loud (by pronouncing the letters that compose it). Chinese characters cannot be "spelled" in this way. That is why when Chinese people talk to each other and there is a misunderstood word, they show what the character looks like by writing it with the index finger of one hand on the palm of the other.

The Chinese language developed into two very different forms. One is the spoken language, which has changed phonetically through history; the other is the classical language – the written language that has not paralleled the transformations in the spoken language and has become a fixed expression in which the vocabulary and grammar have not changed.

Classical Chinese literature can be read and understood by all, not being identified with any particular period in history or dialect. Even though there have been and still are many different dialects spoken in China, as different as English and French, the classical literature has prevented the creation of local literatures and has ensured a common means of communication, shared by all Chinese scholars. From this aspect, there is a resemblance between classical Chinese and Latin, the language of scholars in medieval Europe.

Texts written in the Zhou 周 (zhōu) dynasty (1046-221 BCE) remained the traditional primer texts for children for hundreds of years, in fact until the twentieth century. These classic texts became a model for style and thought, and molded the ideology of Chinese scholars for generations.

As stated, the Chinese language is sparing with words; but literary Chinese is even more economical. Idioms and proverbs, most of them borrowed from literary works, are very concise, expressing much in a few characters. They do not include prepositions. Consequently, translating them into Western languages and giving them a clear significance requires the addition of complementary words. This frugality of expression calls for special deciphering, and, without an understanding of the context, it is difficult to comprehend the meaning of these sayings.

While translating these idioms, with the original texts in Chinese I was assisted by their translations into other languages, since translations often interpret the text.

Proverbs and pearls of wisdom are very much integrated into everyday language in China. People spice up every conversation with folk proverbs and with those borrowed from ancient historians, poets and philosophers. By presenting philosophical thoughts in a few concise words, the proverbs add color and drama to the everyday spoken language.

The Chinese people conceive the application of proverbs as a measure by which to evaluate the general education of the speaker, their knowledge of literature, history and philosophy, and their wisdom. For the Chinese people, there is nothing more impressive than using proverbs in the right context. Such use clarifies ideas, deepens meaning and sometimes adds some humor to the conversation. Sayings evoke associations in the mind of the listener and turn listening, which is usually a passive mental process, into an active one.

In the Chinese language many idioms and proverbs provide an entirely different message to that of their literal meaning. For example, 马马虎虎 (mǎ mǎ hū hū), literally meaning "horse horse tiger tiger", figuratively means "so-so" or "careless".

China, due to its size and long history, has more proverbs than any other country in the world. Wisdom and moral sayings were to be found everywhere: on ornamental vessels, utility vessels, fans, and hanging scrolls.

The sources of theses phrases are diverse. Some were coined in the folk culture and others were borrowed from stories, from philosophers such as Confucius Named in Chinese 孔子 (kǒng zǐ) or 孔夫子 (kǒng fū zǐ), literally: Master Kong. (551-479 BCE) and Mencius Named in Chinese 孟子 (mèng zǐ). (371-289 BCE), or from ancient history books.

Unlike English sayings, the Chinese sayings often have a deliberately fixed number of characters. Some of them rhyme. Most prevalent is the use of four characters, but there are also sayings composed of three characters, six, seven, eight, three + three, four + four, five +five, six + six, seven + seven, etc.

Among researchers of proverbs there are those who make a clear distinction between folk sayings and sayings borrowed from the literature or from philosophers like Confucius. Sayings derived from the Chinese philosophers are usually long, while folk sayings are mostly short. While philosophers' sayings represent the wisdom of one specific individual, folk sayings are the "wisdom of many", originating in the language of the home, of peddlers, and others. The folk sayings are wittier and easier to absorb and remember than those of the philosophers. Modern Chinese intellectuals consider that the folk proverbs, being applicable to every imaginable situation, are more effective in describing a realistic world and in covering a variety of subjects. Peasants have coined many proverbs. They, who have been the majority of the Chinese population, are not scholars in the traditional sense; however, they have accumulated much knowledge about life and their surroundings. Their idiomatic phrases summarize their wisdom, life experience and perceptions, mainly related to agriculture, the weather, the land, and the flora and fauna. Some proverbs are didactic and preach moral behavior; others call for distrust of the judicial system and warn against committing crimes.

There is an almost infinite number of beautiful proverbs and sayings, some not familiar even to many scholars. I have selected here those expressions that in my view will evoke the interest of Western readers, being in everyday use, and having used the Internet as a measuring tool. I performed searches using Google and 白度 (bái dù) (a Chinese search engine) to find sites that present the sayings in full.

In this book I present philosophers' sayings, which are considered as high culture, together with folk proverbs, which are considered low culture. In fact, however, these two kinds of idiomatic phrases have influenced one another throughout history. Folk researchers claim that the common people inspired literature and that high culture penetrated the low culture. Many of the proverbs offer popular versions of the moral code of Confucius. Some are found integrated into texts.

The British philosopher and essayist Francis Bacon (1561-1626) wrote that "The genius, wit and spirit of a nation are discovered in its proverbs”. Studying Chinese proverbs is a good way to penetrate deep into Chinese culture. These sayings, passed from generation to generation over more than two thousand years, reflect folk wisdom. Every saying expresses an idea in a concise simple language. Though the sayings are very old, handing them on from generation to generation has molded moral behavior in China. The Chinese people, no matter which dialect they use, share the same idioms, proverbs and sayings.

Being short and easy to absorb, proverbs were very effective as a propaganda tool during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), at a time when slogans and sayings were very popular.

Such idiomatic phrases have diverse forms of construction. Some rhyme as in poetry; some are constructed in parallel form – subject parallels subject, predicate parallels predicate, etc; some present antithesis, such as "There is no way to heaven and there is no gate to hell"; some present paradox, such as "Fast is slowly and slowly is fast". (In the latter we also find crossing words, in which the word order of the first phrase contrasts the word order of the second phrase); and yet others present metaphor.

The contrasts expressed in the Chinese proverbs reflect the Chinese perception of the world, based on the dynamics of yin and yang. These dynamics, representing contrasts such as hot and cold, day and night, masculine and feminine, are occasionally expressed in words that are comprised of opposites. For example: 多少(duō shǎo) (literally: many few) signifies "how much", "how many" , "amount" ; 大小 (dà xiǎo) (literally: big small) signifies "measurement", "size "; 东西 (dōng xī) (literally: east west) signifies "thing" "something"; 远近 (yuǎn jìn) (literally: far close) signifies "distance";轻重 (qīng zhòng) (literally: light heavy) signifies "weight" ; 长短 (cháng duǎn) (literally: long short) signifies "length"; and 高低 (gāo dī) (literally: high low) signifies "height" etc.

Many of the proverbs have changed over time, receiving a new meaning, sometimes contrasting with that of the original.

In Western languages we can find proverbs parallel to those of the Chinese. Some of them appear here in the book alongside the Chinese proverbs. The existence of proverbs, common to China and the West, supports the contention that proverbs are basic elements of human thought, expressing pure logic. Nonetheless, there are many idiomatic phrases unique to China.

In order to understand certain of the Chinese idiomatic phrases and proverbs, therefore, it is necessary to understand the culture from which they derive. To assist in such understanding, I present below the main ancient literary sources from which they were borrowed. Likewise, I offer a brief outline of China's history, the Chinese perception of the world, religion and philosophy in China, the Chinese traditional calendar, cosmological perception in Chinese tradition, and symbols in the Chinese tradition.

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ON WORK ON EFFORT AND ON ACHIEVEMENTS

2011-11-19T06:03:00.001-08:00

迟(chí)开(kāi)的(de)花(huā)未(wèi)必(bì)不(bú)香(xiāng)

A late-blooming flower is not necessarily devoid of fragrance

A person who becomes famous late in life is not necessarily lacking achievements.

干(gàn)活(huó)不(bú)由(yóu)东(dōng)累(lèi)死(sǐ)也(yě)无(wú)功(gōng)

Working without obeying the boss, though exhausting (literally: tiring to death), will bring no achievements

赐(cì)子(zǐ)千(qiān)金(jīn)不(bù)如(rú)教(jiào)子(zǐ)一(yī)艺(yì)

Better teach your son a profession rather than give him a thousand pieces of gold

功(gōng)到(dào)自(zì)然(rán)成(chéng)

He who reaches achievements will naturally succeed

如(rú)日(rì)中(zhōng)天(tiān)

Like the sun at noon

At the height of power or career

下(xià)山(shān)容(róng)易(yì)上(shàng)山(shān)难(nán)上(shàng)得(dé)山(shān)来(lái)景(jǐng)更(geng)宽(kuān)

It is easy to descend a mountain [and] difficult to climb one; but after climbing it, the scenery expands

One should make an effort in order to succeed, but once one succeeds, his vision expands and his horizon widens.

一(yī)臣(chén)不(bú)事(shì)二(èr)主(zhǔ)

One minister cannot serve two lords

心(xīn)坚(jiān)石(shí)也(yě)穿(chuān)

A determined heart can pierce a stone

A determined person can realize every aspiration

The same idea is expressed in the idiom:

水(shuǐ)能(néng)穿(chuān)石(shí)

Water can pierce a stone

With persistence, one can change things.

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In the Bible it is written:

אבנים שחקו מים (איוב, י"ד , 19).

The waters wear the stones. (Job 14,19)

Another version:

滴(dī)水(shuǐ)石(shí)穿(chuān)

Dripping water pierces a stone

With constant efforts, one can overcome any difficulty; perseverance brings success.

In Italian they say:

A goccia a goccia s'incava la pietra.

Literally: Drop after drop erode the stone.

斧(fǔ)快(kuài)不(bú)怕(pà)木(mù)柴(chái)硬(yìng)

Literally: A sharp axe is not afraid of hard firewood.

A talented person is not afraid of a difficult mission.

扁(biǎn)担(dan)是(shì)条(tiáo)龙(lóng)一(yī)生(shēng)吃(chī)不(bú)穷(qióng)

A carrying pole is [like] a dragon [that one can count on to provide him with] food throughout a lifetime

One should count only on one's own efforts, to earn a living.

This was a common saying among porters in China before 1949.

A parallel idiom in Hebrew:

אם אין אני לי מי לי )פרקי אבות א, יד).

Literally: If I am not for myself, who will be for me ? (Pirkei Avot, 1, 14)

吃(chī)了(le)三(sān)天(tiān)素(sù)就(jiù)想(xiǎng)上(shàng)西(xī)天(tiān)

Literally: Three days eats vegetarian food, and expects to rise to the Western Paradise (in other words, expects to become Buddha).

One cannot reach achievements or become famous without hard work.

上(shàng)天(tiān)下(xià)地(dì)

Literally: ascends to heaven and descends to earth.

Turns every stone, does not spare any effort.

This idiom also means:

Everywhere

守(shǒu)株(zhū)待(dài)兔(tù)

Keeps watching a tree while waiting for rabbits

Counts on luck instead of making an effort to reach achievements.

This is based on the following story told by the philosopher Han Feizi 韩(hán)非(fēi)子(zǐ) (280-233 BCE):

A young man from the State of Song 宋(sòng), who was working the land, saw a hare running fast, dash itself against a tree in the field, and fall dead at his feet. All that was left for him to do was to put the hare in the sack and prepare a tasty evening meal. From then on he would sit by that same tree, waiting in vain for another hare to dash itself against it. This never happened. Instead, he was ridiculed by the people of the State of Song.

吃(chī)力(lì)不(bú)赚(zhuàn)钱(qián)赚(zhuàn)钱(qián)不(bú)吃(chī)力(lì)

He who works hard does not earn [a lot of] money; he who earns [a lot of] money does not work hard

This was said of businessmen in China before 1949 and has begun to be said again since the last decade of the 20^th century.

图(tú)小(xiǎo)利(lì)大(dà)事(shì)不(bù)成(chéng)

He who plans small profits will not achieve great achievements

不(bú)撒(sǎ)大(dà)网(wǎng)不(bù)得(dé)大(dà)鱼(yú)

He who will not spread a big net will not fish big fish

Without great efforts and pain, one does not achieve significant achievements.

In English they say:

No pain, no gain.

练(liàn)不(bù)成(chéng)就(jiù)怕(pà)心(xīn)不(bú)恒(héng)

Do not worry about not doing things perfectly; be worried about not persevering

不(bú)怕(pà)路(lù)长(cháng)只(zhǐ)怕(pà)志(zhì)短(duǎn)

Literally: Do not be afraid of a long way but of a short ambition.

大(dà)胆(dǎn)天(tiān)下(xià)去(qù)得(dé)小(xiǎo)心(xīn)寸(cùn)步(bù)难(nán)行(xíng)

The bold can reach any place on earth (literally: under the sky) [whereas] the cautious cannot walk [even] one inch

不(bú)怕(pà)慢(màn)就(jiù)怕(pà)站(zhàn)

Do not be afraid of slowing down; you should rather be afraid of halting

Slow advancement ensures progress, whereas halting leads to failure.

Another version of the same idiom:

不(bú)怕(pà)慢(màn)只(zhǐ)怕(pà)站(zhàn); 不(bú)怕(pà)站(zhàn)，只(zhǐ)怕(pà)转(zhuǎn)

Do not be afraid of slowing down, just be afraid of a halting; do not be afraid of a halting, just be afraid of withdrawal

种(zhòng)瓜(guā)得(dé)瓜(guā)种(zhòng)豆(dòu)得(dé)豆(dòu)

Plant melons and you will get melons; plant beans and you will get beans

One reaps what one sows.

The same idea is found in the idiom:

一(yī)分(fēn)耕(gēng)耘(yún)一(yī)分(fēn)收(shōu)获(huò)

As much as you plow and weed, you will harvest

Working diligently will lead to success.

骑(jì)驴(lǘ)找(zhǎo)马(mǎ)

Literally: Seeks a horse while riding a donkey.

Continues to work in his workplace while looking for a better one.

志(zhì)不(bù)可(kě)慢(màn)时(shí)不(bù)可(kě)失(shī)

Do not let your aspirations weaken [and] do not lose time

豆(dòu)腐(fǔ)好(hào)吃(chī)磨(mó)难(nàn)推(tuī)

Tofu is tasty but pushing the grindstone to produce it is hard

Good things are a product of hard work.

地(dì)在(zài)人(rén)中(zhōng)事(shì)在(zài)人(rén)为(wéi)

Literally: [The produce of] the land depends on man; [success in] things depends on man.

Everything depends on human effort.

Usually, only the second part of this idiom is used.

熟(shú)能(néng)生(shēng)巧(qiǎo)
With practice one can learn the trick

Practice makes perfect.

能(néng)者(zhě)多(duō)劳(láo)
The talented are usually busy

大(dà)器(qì)不(bù)可(kě)小(xiǎo)用(yòng)小(xiǎo)器(qì)不(bù)可(kě)大(dà)用(yòng)

One should not use [either] a big tool for a small task, [or] a small tool for a big task

Do not give either an insignificant mission to a person of great talent, or an important mission to a person of small talent.

The idea in the first part of the idiom is expressed also in the idiom:

牛(niú)鼎(dǐng)烹(pēng)鸡(jī)

Cooking a chicken in a cauldron designated for an ox

To kill a fly with a big sword.

Originally, this meant, "using a big tool for a small job". Today it is used to describe giving a small insignificant task to a person of great talent.

The same idea is found in the idiom:

牛(niú)刀(dāo)小(xiǎo)试(shì)

To use a big knife for cutting a small thing

Giving a small insignificant task to a person of great talent.

This also means:

First and small exhibit of a master artist.

废(fèi)寝(qǐn)忘(wàng)食(shí)

Neglects one's sleep and food

Said of a person who forgets to sleep and eat, wholly concentrated on his mission and determined to reach his target.

牛(niú)马(mǎ)

Literally: Oxen and horses.

Said of those who work harder than beasts of burden.

The same idea is expressed in the idiom:

牛(niú)马(mǎ)不(bù)如(rú)的(de)生(shēng)活(huó)

Literally: Life of oxen and horses is preferable.

Said of a life of forced labor.

人(rén)各(gè)有(yǒu)能(néng)有(yǒu)不(bù)能(néng)

Every person has things that he can do and those that he cannot do

言(yán)必(bì)信(xìn)行(xíng)必(bì)果(guǒ)

One must stand by one’s words and be resolute in action until success is achieved

九(jiǔ)牛(niú)二(èr)虎(hǔ)

Literally: Nine oxen [and] two tigers.

Making a powerful effort.

一(yí)个(gè)和(hé)尚(shang)挑(tiāo)水(shuǐ)喝(hē)两(liǎng)个(gè)和(hé)尚(shang)抬(tái)水(shuǐ)喝(hē)，三(sān)个(gè)和(hé)尚(shang)没(méi)水(shuǐ)喝(hē)

[When] one Buddhist monk carries water on a pole he will have water to drink; [when] two Buddhist monks carry water together they will have water to drink; [when it comes to] three Buddhist monks, they will have no water to drink

Lack of personal initiation causes interdependence among people and, thus, the more people are involved, the less impressive the results.

In English they say:

Too many cooks spoil the broth

半(bàn)途(tú)而(ér)废(fèi)

To stop in the middle of the way

To leave something incomplete.

.Half done is like nothing done

手(shǒu)艺(yì)是(shì)活(huó)宝(bǎo)天(tiān)下(xià)饿(è)不(bú)倒(dǎo)

Working skills are a treasure for a lifetime [that makes it possible to live] anywhere without being hungry

一(yī)只(zhī)蜂(fēng)酿(niáng)不(bù)成(chéng)蜜(mì)一(yī)颗(kē)米(mǐ)熬(áo)不(bù)成(chéng)粥(zhōu)

One bee cannot produce honey; with one crumb of rice, one cannot cook porridge

This is said to emphasize the importance of teamwork.

愚(yú)公(gōng)移(yí)山(shān)

The old fool who moved mountains

With perseverance, nothing is impossible.

This is based on the following legend written by the Daoist philosopher Lie Zi 列(liè)子(zǐ) (4^th century BCE):

An old man lived opposite two mountains that blocked the way to his house. One day he called his family to help him move these mountains. Passersby, thinking that he was a fool, asked him how he would carry out his plan. The old "fool" answered that his family and the generations to come would work and, eventually, the mountains would be removed. He said that with every inch removed, the mountain would become smaller.

Mao Zedong used this idiom to encourage the Chinese people to fight the Japanese during the Second World War.

ON WOMEN AND MEN

2011-11-19T05:31:00.001-08:00

Throughout Chinese history there was a prominent principle of separation between the genders. It was even customary for husbands and wives to live at some distance from each other. Separation between men and women prevailed in the farm work as well. During the Spring Festival (the celebration of the New Year), boys and girls from the villages would go out to the fields to find a spouse.

The ancient Chinese imagined that women would become mothers simply by touching holy rivers. According to the same approach that links women to water, they believed that women had the power to make the rain fall. Seeing women as powerful in ancient times was also expressed through the then customary practice of passing on the surname of the mother to her children; hence, the word 姓(xìng), meaning "family name" includes the character 女(nǚ)，meaning "woman". In present-day China, however, surnames pass from father to children. Nevertheless, after marriage, women typically retain their maiden name.

The passage from a matriarchal society to a patriarchal one occurred during the feudal period (1086-771 BCE), when women were educated to obey a strict code of ethics, and were expected to be submissive, shy and selfless. Throughout their lives they would be controlled by men. During her childhood a girl would have to obey her father; after her marriage a woman would have to obey her husband; and after the latter's death she would have to obey her sons. Women submissively accepted their duties and their intellectual inferiority, and most of them remained illiterate. Hidden at home most of the time, they would learn to perform the household chores. Girls from noble families would be educated to become daughters-in-law in their husband's family. The higher status of men over women finds its expression in the word "Mister" 先(xiān)生(shēng), literally: first-born.

In Chinese tradition, the relationship between men and women is conceived of as an analogy to yin and yang. Like earth, women were considered to be found in a low place as obedient and passive beings, as opposed to men, who were conceived of as active, dominant and strong like heaven. The passage from yang to yin and vice versa, as an analogy to men and women, is echoed in the Chinese saying, "A man, who is born as a wolf, when intimidated, will become a woman; a woman, who is born as a mouse, when intimidated, will become a leopardess".

In traditional China marriage[1] was the result of an agreement between two families, rather than an agreement between a man and a woman. The parents would decide upon the marriage without involving the young couple. The future husband and wife would rarely object to their parents' decision. The choices left for a woman who did not marry were difficult. She could become a slave, servant, prostitute, Buddhist nun or a concubine.

The familial role of the woman, as a daughter, wife, mother, daughter-in-law, grandmother, widow, or several of these roles simultaneously, determined her abode, lifestyle, the attitude towards her and how she would be mourned. A woman, though born to her father's family, was not considered as his family member. After marriage, she would move to her husband's family, and the door to her father's home would be closed to her. Her visits to her parents' home were determined by laws and customs. The name of a woman who had died before marrying would not appear on the family altar. As a wife who would give offspring to her husband, she would be willingly received by his family, but only after having children could she be sure of having a place on the altar of her husband's family. As long as her mother-in-law was alive, she would actually be a slave doing all the household work. The customs and the rules of ethics forced her to obey her husband's parents.

Women in traditional China were occupied with housework, taking care of the children, preparing food, weaving, spinning, sewing and embroidery, while the men worked in the field. Women of the upper class were not allowed to talk to male visitors at home.

Ban Zhao 班(bān) 昭(zhāo) (45-116 CE), the most famous educated woman in Chinese history, wrote the book Lessons for Women 女(nǚ)诫(jiè), in which she explains that, 40 years after being married at the age of 14, she had decided to write down things that, in her view, would be useful for every woman. From her descriptions we can learn about the discrimination against women since birth. Ban Zhao herself reached exceptional achievements, serving as an historian in the court of Emperor He Di 和(hé)帝(dì) (ruled 88-105 CE) after the death of her brother, whom she replaced. Likewise, she served as political adviser to Empress Deng Sui 邓(dèng)绥(suí) (81-121 CE), who came to power as regent for her son in 106 CE.

In her book, Ban Zhao writes that on the third day after a baby-girl is born, the Chinese practice a custom comprised of three elements: placing the infant under the bed, giving her a piece of broken cauldron to play with, and reporting her birth to the ancestors by giving them offerings. Ban Zhao explains that placing the baby under the bed marks her inferiority and weakness, and her initial duty to be humble and modest; the piece of broken cauldron represents the hard work that is expected of her throughout her life; and the report to the ancestors is intended to remind her of her obligation to serve the family ancestors.

According to the book, a woman has to serve her husband, obey his parents, and refrain from confrontations with his family. She is expected to go to sleep late at night and arise early in the morning, in order to carry out her obligations. She should not refuse to perform her duties.

One piece of revolutionary advice given by Ban Zhao was that girls and boys should receive the same education until the age of 15. Her writings gained appreciation among scholars due to the moral values that she preached.

During the Tang 唐(táng) dynasty (618-907 CE) women's lives became more liberated than before. They could go out freely and it was no longer a disgrace for women of the upper class to divorce and remarry.

The custom of foot-binding with silk bands began before the Tang dynasty among women dancers and concubines, to capture the emperor's eyes. During the Song 宋(sòng) dynasty (960-1279 CE) the admiration for small feet expanded from the palace to women from the upper class, and from these to the entire population. The size of a woman's feet was reduced to half that of normal. Foot-binding was a living symbol of women's oppression. Most women would bind their feet, a process causing much pain, and which began when the girls were five or six years old, some even as early as at the age of two years. The feet would be tightly bandaged and the front joints, except for the great toe, would be bent inward. With the passing of time the bones would become broken and the feet become much shorter. Whereas a woman's face was considered a divine gift, feet bound improperly were conceived of as a sign of laziness and inadequate education. Mothers would bind their daughters' feet to improve their chances of a good marriage.

Small feet were considered erotic, especially in the eyes of men, and were called "golden lilies". There was a saying that "the smaller the feet the stronger the sex drive". This custom nonetheless made women handicapped and, thus, working in the field or just walking, caused them much pain. The more they were expected to work in the field, the less was the chance that this custom would be practiced.

About the life of women in traditional Chinese society we can learn from the writings of the biographer Liu Xiang 刘(liú)向(xiàng) (79-8 BCE), who wrote the biographies of admired women in ancient China - a collection of stories on their exalted deeds and philanthropic behavior. Each of these women embodied at least one virtue, such as loyalty to the ruler, self-sacrifice for the husband or father, and modesty. Thus, these stories reveal the qualities that were appreciated in women.

One biography describes the life of the mother of the philosopher Mencius 孟(mèng)子(zǐ) (371-289 BCE), to whom several virtues were ascribed. It recounts that when Mencius was a little boy he lived near a cemetery, and liked to play games, performing burial ceremonies and building tombs and mounds of graves. His mother, who thought that this place was not suitable for bringing up her child, moved to near a market place in the city. Here, Mencius would play games of buying and selling. This place also seemed to her inappropriate for raising her child, and again she moved elsewhere, to near a school. Here Mencius played at performing sacrificial rites to the ancestors and his mother decided to remain at this place. She said to her son that if he would not study, he would become a despised servant, never free of trouble. Defining the duties of women, Mencius' mother said that they should cook five kinds of cereals, heat wine, take care of their parents-in-law, and produce clothes.

About the attitude of men toward women during the Han 汉(hàn) dynasty (220-206 BCE), we can learn from a letter sent by Yan Feng to his wife's younger brother, explaining the reason for his divorce. He describes his wife as a woman whose behavior was worsening from day to day. She saw white as black, and wrong as right. Concerning himself, Yan Feng testifies that he is never wrong, not making the slightest mistake, unlike his wife, who tells lies about him and annoys him all the time. He remarks that since ancient times it has been considered a great disaster to live in a house controlled by a woman. Now, as he writes, this disaster has fallen on him. He should have sent her back to her parents' home a long time ago, but he has not done so, being concerned about the children and because, without his wife, there would be no one to work at home. Likewise, he expresses his fear that his children would become servants.

In his letter, Yan Feng also writes that according to the rules of conduct determined by the sagacious Chinese, a man must have a wife and concubines too. He remarks that a man from a poor and humble family would also desire to have concubines, and expresses his regret at reaching old age without having one, a regret that would follow him to his grave.

A woman named Yuan Zai from the 12^th century CE describes women's problems. She writes that women do not take care of family matters outside the home, because proper husbands and sons are responsible for these. Bad husbands, in her view, are those who hide their deeds from their wives. Many of them are self-indulgent and gamblers. Some reach a situation in which they provide their land and even their houses as collateral, without telling their wives. Women are helpless, with no control over such situations.

Kong Demao 孔(kǒng)德(dé)懋(mào), a modern-day member of Confucius' family, and whose family tree dates back to the time of the famous philosopher, tells in the 20^th century about her life and the lives of women in the mansion of the Kong family in Qufu 曲(qǔ)阜(fù), the home town of Confucius in Shandong 山(shān)东(dōng) . According to the rules of conduct of the mansion, women were not allowed to take part in sacrificial rites. Their participation was considered an insult to the ancestors to whom the sacrifices were offered. The prevalent belief was that women might silence the music in the Confucian temple. Tradition has it that once the music suddenly stopped during a sacrificial ceremony, and it was revealed that a Buddhist nun had attended this ceremony. Only after she was thrown out were the sounds of the bells heard again.

Even obedient women in traditional China were inferior to men, but the fate of adulteresses was worse. In medieval China it was customary to strike adulteresses on their bare buttocks and, in serious cases, they would be stripped completely naked before being struck.

The attitude toward women significantly changed after the Communists came to power in 1949. Whereas the Confucians had stressed the hierarchy in which women are inferior to men, the Communist party strove to minimize the differences between the genders and abolish the hierarchy in favor of equality. In 1949, when Mao Zedong 毛泽东(máozédōng)(1893-1976), the Chairman of the Communist party, announced in Tian An Men 天(tiān)安(ān)门(mén) square in Beijing that the Chinese people, a quarter of the world's population, had arisen and stood up, he meant women as well as men. Women were considered as an equal half of the population. They were conceived of as half the sky; that is, as half the sun and half the moon too. The phrase "half the sky" became a slogan expressing the new future for women, one that had moved away from the traditional attitude, according to which there is a clear distinction between men and women, heaven and earth, sun and moon. Traditionally, "Heaven" (yang) served as a synonym of "the domain of men", but following the Communists' rise to power, women were called to enter this domain.

One of the expressions of equality between men and women following the establishment of Communist China, was that of addressing them both as "comrade" 同(tóng)志(zhì). Inside the family the term "nei ren" 内(nèi)人(rén) (literally "person inside"; meaning "inside the house"), which referred to "wife", was replaced by "ai ren" 爱(ài)人(rén) (literally "loved person"), which refers to both men and women.

The traditional Chinese woman, who would be occupied with weaving or embroidering in the internal courtyard, was replaced by a strong and self-confident woman working alongside men in factories, driving tractors, and receiving equal pay for equal work. The message was that women were an active element in the revolution, just like men.

During the Cultural Revolution (1967-1977) foot-binding was banned, as a result of the desire to free women from the heritage of inequality.

嫁(jià)鸡(jī)随(suí)鸡(jī)嫁(jià)狗(gǒu)随(suí)狗(gǒu)

Literally: Marries a rooster follows a rooster, marries a dog follows a dog.

(Dream of the Red Chamber 红(hóng)楼(lóu)梦(mèng) ,chapter 81).

If a woman marries a rooster, she will remain with a rooster and if she marries a dog, she will remain with a dog.

This refers to the life of women in traditional China, where a married woman was obliged to remain with her husband forever.

妇(fù)女(nǚ)能(néng)顶(dǐng)半(bàn)边(biān)天(tiān)

Literally: Women can lift half the sky.

Women can do everything that men can do.

A Communist slogan, frequently used by Mao Zedong.

好(hǎo)男(nán)不(bú)跟(gēn)女(nǚ)斗(dòu)

Good men do not fight women

一(yī)笑(xiào)千(qiān)金(jīn)

Literally: A smile of a thousand pieces of gold.

The smile of a beautiful woman is worth a thousand pieces of gold.

嫁(jià)出(chū)去(qù)的(de)女(nǚ)儿(ér)泼(pō)出(chū)去(qù)的(de)水(shuǐ)

A daughter who has married is like spilled water

(Dream of the Red Chamber, chapter 8).

This describes the situation in traditional China, where a woman who married was severed from her parents.

妻(qī)贤(xiàn)夫(fū)祸(huò)少(shǎo)

When the wife is virtuous, few disasters will befall her husband

家(jiā)无(wú)主(zhǔ)屋(wū)倒(dǎo)竖(shù)

Without the landlady the house will collapse

Usually said after the death of a housewife.

三(sān)从(cóng)四(sì)德(dé)

Literally: Three obeyed [and] four virtues.

This refers to the expectations from a woman throughout her life, in traditional China. She would have to obey three male family members; before her marriage, she would have to obey her father 在(zài)家(jiā)从(cóng)父(fù) (literally: at home, obeys father); during her marriage, she would have to obey her husband 出(chū)嫁(jià)从(cóng)夫(fū) (literally: leaving home, obeys husband) ; and as a widow she would have to obey her sons 夫(fū)死(sǐ)从(cóng)子(zǐ) (literally: husband dead, obeys sons).

There were four virtues expected of women. The first one was moral behavior 妇(fù)德(dé), meaning that they should know their place in the world and follow the rules of conduct expected of them. The second was external beauty 妇(fù)容(róng), meaning that they should adorn themselves in order to please men. The third virtue was "talking appropriately" 妇(fù)言(yán), meaning that they should not talk too much and that they should not bore their listeners. The fourth is that they should do their work 妇(fù)工(gōng) properly, carrying out their housework and efficiently sewing and embroidering.

[1] See also the chapter on love and marriage.