Wednesday, November 16, 2011

ON BEAUTY AND UGLINESS, EXTERIOR AND INTERIOR




One of the earliest characters written on oracle bones was (měi)(literally: beautiful),      whose original significance was "pleasant to look at".   

In Imperial China both men and women would adorn themselves and wear jewelry. Older men often wore jade bracelets and long bead chains. It was also customary for men to hold a folding fan and this did not have any feminine connotation.

The Chinese emperors attempted to imitate the appearance of their ancestors. Eyebrows were considered ideal if they looked like those of the legendary Emperor Yao (yáo) (from the 3rd millennium BCE) and eyes were considered ideal if they looked like those of the legendary Emperor Shun (shùn)(also from the 3rd millennium BCE). Scholars were expected to have feminine facial features. Fat men were not considered handsome, though the smiling Buddha is fat. He does not represent ideal beauty, however, but cheerfulness.

There were six patron gods responsible for beautifying women. The first one was associated with ointments and perfumes, the second – with the color for the eyebrows, the third – for face powder, the fourth – for a substance that makes the face shine, the fifth – for jewelry, and the sixth – for gowns. While beautifying themselves, women would call upon these gods, each in their turn, according to the relevant component of beauty.

Since time immemorial the Chinese people have attributed supreme importance to female beauty. Women used to powder their faces with rice starch. Bronze mirrors were in use in China as early as the end of the 2nd  millennium BCE. Until the present day, the Chinese like to tell the story of the peasant's wife who asked her husband to buy her a comb in the city. To help him remember her request, she told him that a comb looks like a (half) moon. When the peasant remembered that he had to buy what she asked, the moon was full and it confused him. Instead of a comb, he bought a mirror. When his wife looked in the mirror, she was very angry and said, "How dare you bring home a concubine – and such an ugly one!"

Women were associated with beauty, but significant changes have occurred in what is considered to constitute ideal feminine beauty throughout Chinese history. In traditional China, about two thousand years ago, women used to pluck their eyebrows and paint them. Thick and slightly rounded eyebrows were considered beautiful. Terracotta sculptures that have survived from the Han dynasty present a feminine ideal beauty that reflects women as slender. The princesses of the Han dynasty were buried with their makeup tools, mirrors and combs, for use in the next life.

In the Western Han dynasty (206 BCE - 24 CE) there was a dancer named Zhao Feiyan  (zhào)(fēi) (yàn)who was considered the most beautiful woman of her time. Emperor Cheng Di (chéng)() was attracted to her graceful slender body and she, who used her beauty to gain power, became his concubine. Her nature reflected strength and self-confidence, both considered virtues at that time.

A series of women's biographies (liè)()(chuán), edited by the Confucian scholar Liu Xiang  (liú)(xiàng) (77-6 BCE), narrates the biographies of prominent virtuous women. The intention was to promote the approach that perceived nobility and morality as essential components of beauty. This literary work was a kind of attempt to warn women against using their beauty to gain power, as Zhao Feiyan had done. In these stories, external beauty is presented as a reflection of an internal beauty. The book comprises biographies of ugly women too, who in spite of not being beautiful married emperors and became empresses thanks to their noble character and inner beauty.

During the Tang dynasty (618-907 CE), at the beginning of the eighth century, a slender woman was still considered beautiful. However, the perception of ideal feminine beauty changed in the middle of the eighth century, and plump women, whose waists were hidden under their voluminous dresses, began to be considered beautiful. This perception of beauty derived from the personal taste of the emperor, who saw in the plump look a reflection of happiness and privilege. Aristocratic women aspired to this ideal, which is reflected in works of art of the period. Thus, plump faces, but with delicate facial features, characterize the noblewomen who are depicted in these works of art. Likewise, plump women are represented participating in sportive activities such as horse riding.

A woman who was considered the most beautiful during the Tang dynasty and one of the most beautiful in the history of China, was Yang Guifei (yáng)(guì)(fēi)(719-756 CE), the concubine of Emperor Xuan Zong (xuán)(zōng)  (712-756 CE). She was heavyset and strong, and the chroniclers of the period described her gentleness and white skin.

 During the Tang dynasty, the simple kimono-shaped clothing worn by both men and women was a result of the aspiration to return to a simple life along with the ideals of the Confucians. Peace and economic security encouraged intellectual activity and greater emphasis was placed on the mind than on external things. Women were expected to present their virtue by means of their external beauty. They adorned themselves with earrings, rings, chains and bracelets. Especially popular were jade, pearls, feathers and magnificent hairpins. There was also a custom among women to paint ornamentation on their cheeks, chin and forehead, in red, yellow, black and other pigments, in various shapes such as the moon, coins, birds, insects, flowers, leaves, etc. This custom had originated in the 2nd century BCE, but became especially fashionable in c.700 CE. In the 7th century it was popular among women to pluck their eyebrows and repaint them higher up on their forehead. This custom had originated in the Sui (suí)dynasty (581-618 CE), but became fashionable in the 7th century. The pigment used for this purpose was derived from seashells.

A custom that began during the Tang dynasty and was considered as beautifying for women, was that of foot-binding. The feet of young girls, at age 6 or even earlier, were wrapped in tight bandages to stop their normal growth. The result of this was that the bones would break and the feet would become highly deformed. As the girl reached adulthood, her feet would remain small and dysfunctional. The idea was to emphasize female tenderness and fragility in comparison with male strength.

During the Ming dynasty (1368-1644 CE), when China freed itself from the Mongolian rule, the Chinese aspired to restore their traditional cultural identity of the Han dynasty. Weak and fragile women were considered the more attractive. Women's foot-binding became even more prevalent, being seen as a symbol of feminine beauty, hierarchy and morality. This perception of beauty continued into the Qing dynasty. 

 In traditional Chinese literature it was customary to compare beautiful women to flowers (huā) such as peach blossom (táo)(huā), lotus (lián)(huā), pear blossom ()(huā), orchid (lán)(huā), etc. A woman's shiny[1] hair was described as "cloud-like hair" and considered especially beautiful. In descriptions of female beauty, the description of the hair appears first. Watermelon seeds were used as a poetic metaphor to describe a girl's teeth.

 From the writings of the Chinese poet Li Yu ()() (1611-1680), known also as Li Liwang ()()(wēng), we can learn about the perception of ideal feminine beauty during his time, a perception that is still valid in present-day China. Hair that appears to be floating above the head was especially admired. An ideal face resembled an egg in shape. The ideal forehead was high and the ideal eyebrow was rounded like a willow leaf. According to Li, the most beautiful women were those of Suzhou ()(zhōu)and Hangzhou (háng)(zhōu).  

According to one modern-day Chinese newspaper, the ideal feminine beauty includes eyebrows rounded like willow leaves, a mouth as small as that of a fish, eyes resembling lichee fruit or almonds, and teeth that are white and balanced like pomegranate seeds. Small and unbalanced teeth are called "rat's teeth", and teeth that protrude are considered especially repulsive. Blue eyes are considered ugly because among the Han people there are no blue-eyed individuals.

During the Qing dynasty (1644-1911 CE) that began with the victory of the Manchurians over the Ming dynasty, there was an unsuccessful attempt to ban the custom of binding women's feet, which was prevalent among all social classes.

Since 1911, when Sun Yat Sen (sūn)(zhōng)(shān)(1866-1925) became President of the Chinese republic, and following the May 4th movement in 1919, China has undergone  a process of modernization. Trade relations with the West have brought to China new ideas - of equal rights for women. Accordingly, the West also influenced ideals of beauty. Foot-binding became less common. As a response to the fashion of short skirts in the West, Chinese women began to wear the qipao ()(páo)- a long tight dress that reveals the shape of the woman's body more than any other article of clothing in preceding periods. The use of lipstick and the plucking of eyebrows became fashionable. This fashion was brought to a halt, however, during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), which changed the perception of female beauty and symbolized the passage from traditions that had limited women, to a new freedom and equality for women. During the Cultural Revolution the Red Guards were opposed to the make-up that was so deep-rooted in traditional Chinese culture.

From 1976, with the death of Mao, a new age of consumer culture began. Influenced by the West, the Chinese established a beauty industry. Breast augmentation operations, face lifts, rhinoplasty and eyelid operations became popular. Chinese women in present-day China are expected to be modern and attractive. Beauty is again very important in China and, just as in the West, is fully exploited by the commercial companies that produce cosmetics. 

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(qíng)(rén)(yǎn)()(chū)

Beauty lies in the lover's eyes

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(xiāng)(xiāo)()(yǔn)

The fragrance disappeared and the jade perished

Beauty faded.

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(huā)()(guā)(kōng)(hǎo)(kàn)

The papaya flower is most beautiful when its fruit is empty

Beauty does not guarantee good character.  

In Hebrew they say:

אל תסתכל בקנקן, אלא במה שיש בו (מסכת אבות, ד, כ"ו).

Literally: Do not look at the pitcher but at what it contains (Pirkei Avot, 4, 26)



(huā)()(guā)(kōng)(hǎo)(kàn)

The papaya flower is most beautiful when its fruit is empty

Beauty does not guarantee good character.  

In Hebrew they say:

אל תסתכל בקנקן, אלא במה שיש בו (מסכת אבות, ד, כ"ו).

Literally: Do not look at the pitcher but at what it contains (Pirkei Avot, 4, 26)

.

()(huā)()()(yǎn)

Different flowers look good to different people

Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder.





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 (mào)(měi)(ér)()()(yóu)()(huā)(zhī)()(xiāng)
Beauty without virtue is like a flower without fragrance
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()(guǒ)()(yǒu)(liǎng)(kuài)(miàn)(bāo) (qǐng)(sòng)()(kuài)(gěi)(qióng)(rén) (mài)(diào)(lìng)()(kuài) (zài)(mǎi)(lái)(fēng)(xìn)()(huā)
If you have two loaves of bread, give one to the poor, sell the other, and buy a hyacinth (flower) [to feed your soul]



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 (mào)(měi)(ér)()()(yóu)()(huā)(zhī)()(xiāng)
Beauty without virtue is like a flower without fragrance
*
()(guǒ)()(yǒu)(liǎng)(kuài)(miàn)(bāo) (qǐng)(sòng)()(kuài)(gěi)(qióng)(rén) (mài)(diào)(lìng)()(kuài) (zài)(mǎi)(lái)(fēng)(xìn)()(huā)
If you have two loaves of bread, give one to the poor, sell the other, and buy a hyacinth (flower) [to feed your soul]




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(měi)()(liú)()()(qiǎn)(chǒu)(lòu)(shēn)(suì)()()

Beauty is only skin deep, but ugly goes straight to the bone










[1] The natural hair color of all the Chinese is black.

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