From time immemorial, learning has been especially appreciated by the Chinese people, and study formed the basis of cultural life in China
In traditional China
Until the fall of China
For over two thousand years learning to write Chinese had served more for self-development as a morally and socially positive individual than for communication needs. Self-development was not limited to merely acquiring knowledge, but also included the learning of proper behavior. Writing in Chinese contributes greatly to forging the personality of Chinese children. Practicing the writing of thousands of characters repeatedly from memory requires much concentration, determination and diligence.
The philosopher Xun Zi 荀子(298-238 BCE) believed that human nature is basically bad and that good nature must be acquired. In his view, the basic factors that motivate humanity are the will to profit and the desire to get the most possible without considering others. An individual might thus be jealous, hate and destroy others, while turning his back on truth and loyalty. As a result of being a slave to his animalistic desires, he exaggerates his deeds and turns away from righteousness. Natural behavior will only lead to violence, chaos and total barbarity. Only after being restrained by law and taught morality, can man become part of an organized society. Xun Zi gave the analogy that a carpenter is necessary in order to straighten a twisted tree.
Confucius stressed the importance of studies and education for self-development. In his Analects, knowledge 知and learning 学are central values. He considered knowledge to be tangible and perceptible, rather than abstract and theoretical. He perceived Antiquity as reflecting a society fit to serve as a model for the generations to come.
In practice, the aim of education was to prepare people to hold public positions, which determined their social status and wealth. Since ancient times study had been a prerequisite in order to hold a position in the government. The only route by which one could reach such a position was that of the Imperial examinations.[1] Those who passed these examinations would serve the public and in their free time would occupy themselves with writing, calligraphy or painting. Those who failed (most of the examinees) served as teachers and managers of local projects, such as irrigation and charitable foundations.
In the 11th century there were fewer than 13,000 government officials, but hundreds of thousands studied for the examinations. Although these were open to all, the wealthy, who could pay for their studies, had an advantage over the other candidates. The fact that one's social status was determined by one's place on the examination scale put pressure on parents to push their children to succeed. Families took pains over their children's education, and the educated among them tended to intermarry.
The educated ran the schools and the religious institutions. They would dress in long robes with long sleeves and silk hats, clothing not suitable for physical work. Likewise, they would grow long fingernails.
In 124 BCE, during the rule of Emperor Wu 武 (ruled 140-87 BCE), an Imperial university was founded in the city of Chang'an
During the Han dynasty, in 66 CE Emperor Ming 明 (ruled 57-75 CE) founded a Confucian school in the capital city of Luoyang National Academy
Wang An Shi 王安石 (1021-1086 CE), statesman, economist, adviser and poet, transformed the National Academy
Throughout Chinese history, though scholars were not expected to demonstrate knowledge in science and technology, these domains had gained special attention alongside classical philosophy. As early as the 3rd century BCE an encyclopedia was compiled that included knowledge on all the technologies prevailing in China
During the Ming dynasty Emperor Yong Le 永樂 (1360-1424 CE, ruled 1402-1424 CE) initiated the compilation of a general encyclopedia - The Encyclopedia of Yong Le 永樂大典, which was completed in 1408. More than 2,000 scholars wrote 8,000 texts, ranging from Antiquity to the early Ming dynasty, including subjects from domains such as agriculture, art, astronomy, drama, geology, history, literature, medicine, science, religion and technology, alongside descriptions of supernatural phenomena. Scholars at the Imperial University of Nanjing 南京 have assumed that it was handwritten in only one copy and never printed, because of the then high cost of woodcuts. From a copy of the encyclopedia, made in the 16th century, about 400 volumes of the 800 have survived, which are now to be found in libraries and private collections across the world.
A prominent ruler who promoted learning and knowledge during the Qing 清 dynasty (1644-1911 CE) was Emperor Kang Xi 康熙 (ruled 1662 – 1723), who ordered the writing of the history of the Ming dynasty, and personally approved works that set new standards of writing. The new works included a dictionary comprising 45,000 different characters, and an encyclopedia encompassing 10,000 articles - a synthesis of books and illustrations from both earlier and contemporary periods.
The contribution of the Manchurian Emperor Qian Long 乾隆(ruled 1735–1795) to promoting knowledge in China
Scholars, as government officials, writers, painters and calligraphers, contributed much to Chinese culture throughout its history. About the life of scholars in Imperial China we can learn from The Scholars 儒林外史 , written by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 (1701-1754 CE), who satirically describes the lives of scholars during the early Ming 明 dynasty (1368-1644 CE).
A change in the Chinese attitude to study took place following the repeated military defeats suffered by them after the Opium Wars (1839-1842 and 1856-1860), which led them to an understanding that they needed to modernize their society and technology. From the fall of the Qing dynasty (1644-1911) to the establishment of the People's Republic of China Hunan China
From 1949 until the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) the education system followed the Soviet model. This meant that any interactive approach, which could facilitate discussion and independent learning, was prevented. Likewise, the education system was designed to meet the needs of the state rather than those of the individual. The government paid all student tuition and assigned the students their jobs.
In order to eradicate illiteracy and create equality among the social classes, the Communist party initiated simplification of the characters of the traditional Chinese script. The simplified characters have fewer strokes than the traditional ones and thus are easier to remember and write. Before the simplified script (which is customary in present-day China
During the ten-year period of the Cultural Revolution, the infrastructure of the education system was destroyed, and the students were occupied with participating in the revolution rather than with studies. The years following the revolution brought stability to the education system, however, and in 1978, the year of the rise to power of Deng Xiaoping 邓小平, a compulsory education law (at least nine years) was enacted.
The public education system now provides free primary education for six years starting at the age of six or seven, followed by three years of junior high-school and three years of high-school. Some provinces have five years of primary school and four years of junior high-school.
The studies in primary school include subjects such as the Chinese language, mathematics and moral education. In recent years the students can also choose to learn English, a choice recommended to them by their parents and teachers. Junior high-school studies include subjects such as chemistry, biology, physics, history and geography. In high-school six or seven subjects are studied - English, mathematics, the Chinese language, and at least three subjects out of the following: history, chemistry, geography, physics and biology.
Entrance examinations to colleges or universities are held annually in July. Because the weather is very hot at that time of the year and the examinations are difficult, the month of July is called "black July" 黑色七月 .
About the attitude of the Chinese toward learning we can learn from a story told about the mother of the philosopher Mencius 孟子 371-289) BCE). According to this story, when Mencius returned home from school and saw his mother weaving, she asked him whether he had learned everything. When he answered positively, adding that he already knew enough, his mother immediately took her scissors and cut the fabric that she was weaving. Mencius was surprised and worried. His mother then told him that his stupidity concerning learning resembled that of her ripping her unfinished work. She added that people only achieve the admiration of others for their knowledge after much effort. Clever people expand their studies, live in a quiet environment and keep away from evil. She explained that he should know this and, consequently, he would not be hurt.
As in many other domains, in the domain of learning too there is a traditional patron god – Wen Chenngdi 文昌帝 (literally: emperor promoting culture). This god, who is the patron god of students, scholars and examinations, is worshiped by students. In ancient times unskilled examinees would ask him for "divine guidance".
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学而不思则罔思而不学则殆
He who learns without thinking is lost; he who thinks without learning is dangerous
Analects, II, 15) )
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由！诲女知之乎知之为知之，不知为不知是知也
[Confucius said:] You![1] Would you like to know what is knowledge? – When you know something, you know that you know it, [and] when you do not know, you know that you do not know it. This is knowledge.
(Analects, II, 17).
A parallel idiom:
He is wise who knows his ignorance. (Socrates)
A similar idea is found in the idiom:
有不知则有知无不知则无知
He who knows that he does not know will have knowledge; he who does not know that he does not know will have no knowledge
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子曰我非生而知之者好古敏以求之者也
The master said, "I was not born as a knowledgeable person; I love the past and I am excited to research it".
Analects, VII, 20). )
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三人行必有我师焉择其善者而从之其不善者而改之
Whenever three people walk by, one of them will certainly be my teacher. I will select their good qualities and follow them, and change the bad qualities.
Analects, VII, 22))
The (Jewish) sages of blessed memory said:
איזהו חכם – הלומד מכל אדם (פרקי אבות, ד, א).
Literally: Who is wise? One who learns from all people (Pirkei Avot, 4, 1).
In the Bible it is written:
מכל מלמדי השכלתי (תהלים קי"ט, 99)
From all those who taught me, I grew wise (Psalms, 119, 99).
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三不知
Literally: Does not know three.
Ignorant concerning the matter at hand – its beginning, middle and end.
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温故而知新可以为师矣
He who researches the past and thus learns about the present, is able to be a teacher
(Analects, II, 11).
One should acquire knowledge from the past and implement it in the present.
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古之学者为己今之学者为人
The ancients studied for themselves; nowadays people study for others
(Analects, XIV, 24)
In the past people studied for self-development, whereas today people study in order to impress others.
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子曰有教无类
The master said, "In education there is no class distinction"
Analects, XV, 39))
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十年窗下无人问一举成名天下知
After ten years [of studies] anonymously behind closed shutters, once one succeeds, the whole world knows him
This is said by parents to encourage their children to study diligently.
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滚瓜烂熟
Literally: Ripe like a melon that falls from its stalk.
Said of a comprehensive and profound study, deeply knowing something, or knowing something by heart.
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学然后知不足教然后知困
Literally: After learning one knows that he does not know enough [and] after teaching one knows that there are [still] unsolved problems.
The more you learn, the less you feel you know, and the more you teach, you understand that there are still unsolved problems.
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读不尽的书走不完的路
One cannot read all the books [in the world], [just as] one cannot walk along all the roads [in the world]
There is no limit to knowledge and learning
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秀才不怕衣衫破就怕肚里没有货
Literally: A scholar is not worried about worn out clothes but about having no goods in his stomach.
A scholar is not worried about his appearance, but about lack of knowledge.
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秀才不出门能知天下事
A scholar can know about everything under the heavens without ever leaving his home
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学好三年学坏三天
[In order] to learn good [things], three years [are needed], [whereas in order] to learn bad [things], three days [are needed]
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知识之于心灵正如健康之于身体
Knowledge to the mind is what health is to the body
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不学不成不问不知
Without studying there is no achievement [and] without inquiring there is no knowledge
不学不成不问不知
Without studying there is no achievement [and] without inquiring there is no knowledge
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秀才饿死不卖书
A scholar, though starving to death, will not sell his books
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君子不羞学不羞问
A person of noble character is not ashamed of learning [and] asking questions
The (Jewish) sages of blessed memory said:
לא הביישן למד (פרקי אבות, ב, ה).
Literally: The shy will not learn (Pirkei Avot, 2, 5).
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人之于文学也犹玉之于琢磨也
Learning and culture, for a person, are what polishing and grinding are for jade
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君子下学而无常师小人 耻学而羞不能
A person of noble character learns also from inferior people and does not limit himself to learning from one teacher, [whereas] small-minded people are ashamed to learn and to admit that they do not know
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欲穷千里目更上一层楼
If you want to see a thousand miles farther, ascend another storey
Ascend farther, to look farther.
Ascend farther, to look farther.
In French they say:
Celui qui est sur les épaules d'un géant, voit plus loin que celui qui le porte.
Literally: He who stands on a giant's shoulders, sees farther than the one who carries him.
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万般皆下品惟有读书高
All (literally: 10,000) occupations are inferior except studying, which is exalted
A common saying that was prevalent among scholars in traditional China
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人之学如渴饮河海大饮则大盈小饮则小盈
A student is like a thirsty person who drinks from the sea or the river; if he drinks a great deal, he is greatly filled; if he drinks a little, he is little filled
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师傅领进门修行在个人
The teacher leads [the students] to the door; the continuation [of the study] depends on each of them
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有道之士贵以近知远以今知古,以所见知所不见
A scholar who follows Dao learns about the far away through the close by, about the past through the present, [and] about the invisible through the visible
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长江不拒细流泰山不择土石
The Yang Zi river does not refuse to receive water from small rivers, [just as] the mountain Tai is not choosy concerning the local stones reaching it
A person who loves to study will never refuse to receive advice or counsel from anybody.
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不学而求知犹愿鱼而无网焉
Being keen to know without learning is like hoping to fish without a net
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人好学,虽死犹存不学者,虽存谓之行尸走肉耳
A person who loves to study, his spirit continues to live after his death, [whereas] he who does not study, though alive, is like a walking corpse
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人有知学则有力矣
He who has knowledge has power
The same idea is expressed in the idiom:
. 知识就是力量
Knowledge is power
Knowledge is power
A term originally coined in English by Francis Bacon (1561-1626).
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不经一事不长一智
He who does not experience things, does not expand his knowledge
Wisdom follows experience.
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白面书生
Pale-faced scholar
A person without practical experience.
This is based on the following story:
In 450 CE Shen Qingzhi 沈庆之became the commander-in-chief of the Song 宋 (of the Northern and Southern dynasties) dynasty. The emperor of the Song dynasty wanted to invade the State of Wei
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读书百遍而义自见
[After] reading a book one hundred times, [its content] becomes obvious
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手不释卷
Always holding a book
Said of one who studies diligently
This is based on the following story:
During the Three Kingdoms period (220-266 CE), there was in the State of Wu 误 an exceptional general named Lu Meng 吕蒙, who came from a poor family and had had no opportunity to go to school. Encouraged by the Duke of Wu, he began to read books and study diligently. Even when marching or fighting, he always found time to study and became a scholarly general.
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学如逆水行舟不进则退
Studying is like rowing a boat upstream; not moving forward means moving backwards
Studying is like rowing a boat upstream; not moving forward means moving backwards
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.活到老学到老
Literally: Lives until old age, learns until old age.
It is never too late to study.
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前车覆后车诫
An overturned vehicle in front is a warning to the vehicle behind it
One should learn from the mistakes of others.
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前事不忘后事之师
If experience is not forgotten, it becomes as a teacher for the future
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授人以鱼只救一时之急授人以渔则解一生之需
Give a fish to a man and you will remove his worries for a moment; teach him to fish and you will answer all his needs for a lifetime
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不知则问不能则学
When you do not know [something], ask [those who know], [and] when you cannot do something, learn [from those who can]
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玉不琢不成器人不学不成材
Man without studying will not reach great achievements, [just as] jade without carving and polishing will not become a jewel
A slightly different version, from the Three-Character Classic 三字经:
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玉不琢不成器人不学不知义
Man without studying will not know how to behave properly, [just as] jade, without carving and polishing, will not become a jewel
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好问则裕自用则小
He who inquires will expand his knowledge; he who is satisfied with his knowledge, will be narrow minded
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近水知鱼性近山识鸟音
He who [lives] near water will know about fish, [and] he who [lives] near mountains will recognize birds' chirping
In order to know a place or a person, one should be close to them.
It is important to research things in the place where they occur.
A slightly different version, from the Three-Character Classic 三字经:
:
玉不琢不成器人不学不知义
Man without studying will not know how to behave properly, [just as] jade, without carving and polishing, will not become a jewel
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好问则裕自用则小
He who inquires will expand his knowledge; he who is satisfied with his knowledge, will be narrow minded
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近水知鱼性近山识鸟音
He who [lives] near water will know about fish, [and] he who [lives] near mountains will recognize birds' chirping
In order to know a place or a person, one should be close to them.
It is important to research things in the place where they occur.
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青取之于蓝而青于蓝冰水为之而寒于冰
Blue extracted from indigo is bluer than the indigo (plant) itself, [just as] ice is colder than water
Said of a student whose knowledge is better than that of his teacher, or of a newcomer who is better than the one who preceded him.
This is based on a story from The History of the Northern Dynasties 北史,[1] where it is told about Kong Wangfan 孔王番 , a teacher who was not ashamed to ask his students' advice.
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教学相长
Teachers and students develop each other
[1] The 15th of the 24 dynastic histories 二十四史 (covering the period from 3000 BCE to the Ming Dynasty in the 17th century), compiled by Li Yanshou 李延寿 in 659 CE during the Tang dynasty.
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学而不厌诲人不倦
When learning, never become satiated, [and] when teaching, never become tired
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教授教授越教越瘦
Professors, professors, the more they teach, the skinnier they become
Pun: The word 授, meaning "professor", and the word 瘦 , meaning "skinny", are homonyms.
This would be said satirically, referring to the low salaries in the Chinese universities during the 1940s and again during the 1990s.
黑发不知勤学早白首方悔读书迟
He who, when young (literally: black haired), did not study diligently, will regret it when old (literally: white head) [and] when it is too late to study
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教书三年教自身
He who teaches three years, teaches himself
A teacher learns from teaching.
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知人无务不若愚而好学
An unintelligent person who loves to study is preferable to an intelligent one who does not study
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三分天才七分学
Literally: Thirty percent – gift from heaven, seventy percent – studies
Thirty percent of success is ascribed to talent [and] seventy percent - to studies.
[1] For more on the Imperial examinations, see the chapter on ruling.
[2] Lu Buwei was appointed regent of the prince who was later to become Emperor Qin Shi Huang Di 秦始皇帝. After the latter gained the throne, however, he murdered Lu Buwei.
[3] See the idiom One character [is worth] a thousand pieces of gold in the chapter on books and literature.
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